If You Have to Ask and Pleasant Personality Essay

1.What Is A Pleasant Personality? No matter what you create in life before you can create it you have to know and understand what it is that you are creating. If you are not consciously creating then you will create through default with the outcomes being random, unpredictable and often unpleasant. A personality is your set of characteristics which is made up of your attitudes, your beliefs, your knowledge, your perceptions, your behaviours, your interests and other personal traits that you hold. Your personality communicates your quality as a person . Your pleasant personality distinguishes you and is what makes you appealing to others. We have all met and interacted with those who have unpleasant personalities and have experienced the upsets created that come from our exchanges with them. In order to consciously create your pleasant personality you must first be aware of what your attitudes and behaviours are towards people and life. You have to take ownership of your knowledge rather than pretending not to know or worse, refusing to acquire knowledge and skills . You have to examine your beliefs and your attitudes . Further, what mood level do you operate in? Can you move easily through the different moods or are you chronically stuck or fixed in a low mood level or in the pretense of a high mood level that you really don’t feel? 2. Your Pleasant Personality  Your pleasant personality is defining you for those with whom you come in contact or interact with. What do you want people to know about you? How do you want to be perceived by others? What characteristics do you have? Are you helpful? Are you an inspiration to others? Do you have a sense of humor? Are you dependable? Are you empathetic? Are you friendly? Each of us has a unique blend of characteristics that contribute to our individual personalities. Draw on the best of these characteristics, the most positive of them and use your attributes and abilities to create your own, one of a kind, pleasant personality! Make a list of them if you have to. Your pleasant personality will shine through whatever identity you are wearing, be it your business identity, your spousal identity, your parental identity, your friend identity or any other number of identities you wear as you play your games in life. You may not wear the same identity to MacDonald’s as you would to the Four Seasons but your pleasant personality will co-ordinate with any identity that you consciously and purposefully choose to wear. 3. Why Develop A Pleasant Personality? You can be the smartest person in the world and you can be willing to tackle whatever task is at hand but if you have failed to develop a pleasant personality you will be hard pressed for an audience and it is unlikely that you will be chosen as a vital member of a team. It is therefore vital that you develop a pleasant personality. It is essential as you go out and about in life that you be aware of what your personality is saying and demonstrating about you. Whether you like sales or not every time you interact with another or others you are giving a sales pitch. You are building a reputation and you are telling others who you are not just by your name but by the knowledge you have and the level or responsibility you take for that knowledge. Of equal importance is the personality you use to convey your messages to others. 4. What Are The Consequences Of Having A Pleasant Personality? From the above you will have identified the characteristics of your pleasant personality. If you find that your personality has been predominantly unpleasant ask yourself, â€Å"What have been or could be the consequences of having an unpleasant personality? Keep asking yourself that question until all the consequences of having an unpleasant personality have been brought to view. Then, with your identified characteristics of a pleasant personality ask yourself, â€Å"What have been or could be the consequences of having a pleasant personality? Keep asking yourself that question until all the consequences have been brought to view. If you find that you already have a pleasant personality your having defined the characteristics of that personality will allow you to take full ownership of and empower your pleasant personality. Ask yourself, â€Å"What have been or could be the consequences of having a pleasant personality? Keep asking yourself the question until you have viewed all the consequence thereby acknowledging yourself while raising your confidence level. Having a pleasant personality and using it to its full extent will empower you in life and it will serve to empower and inspire others. Then, as Dr. Seuss so aptly put it, â€Å"Oh the places you will go.†

Human Trafficking is Modern Day Slavery Essay

Through the years, terrible battles have been fought and many lives lost to eliminate slavery in this country, yet it still exists in the form of human trafficking. Globalization, competing economic markets and the population boom have created an environment that is ripe for modern day slavery. It was reported in a recent article in the European Journal of Criminology, all countries in the modernized world, whether it is the United States, Canada, New Zealand or the United Kingdom, can be shown to be active participators in the global market of human flesh, either as a country of origin – that is, countries people are trafficked out of; a country of destination – that is, countries where trafficked persons end up; or a country of transit – that is, countries through which trafficked per ­sons are moved en route to their final destination. (Winterdyk, Reichel). Trafficking in human flesh is a 32 billion dollar industry worldwide with an inventory of approximately 1 million victims in the United States alone and the number of victims is steadily on the rise (Feingold). Forced labor, domestic servitude, and sexual exploitation are the most prevalent forms of human trafficking in this country, adding nearly 80 thousand victims annually, with children making up 50% of these statistics. Local and federal officials need to do more to bring traffickers to justice and eliminate human trafficking in this country. When asked to consider what human trafficking or slavery means, most people might think back to the era of slave trading. They might picture ships, full of passengers forcibly taken from their villages, sailing across the Atlantic Ocean to America, only to become slaves working on plantations, in the cotton fields, under a grueling sun. Today, those slave ships have become different types of transportation that can contain and move human cargo without easy detection and the people inside the containers have not been forcibly taken. These people are looking forward to a better way of life and believe that they are being helped to reach it. What they don’t know is that they are headed from bad to worse. George Palermo, M. D at University of Nevada School of Medicine and Medical College of Wisconsin, believes that victims are drawn into the tentacles of human trafficking because of their desire for a better future, to escape social discrimination, or they are searching for honest work to better themselves. â€Å"The dream of a better future pulls them from their home. However, they too often find themselves disillusioned and entrapped in a very debasing situation, and their dreams are shattered† (Palermo 671). With their hopes of that new life dashed to pieces, the passengers begin that new life as modern day slaves, in a strange place, without knowing the language. These individuals will become the newest victims of forced labor, domestic servitude, and sexual exploitation. They will be forced into laboring in places such as sweatshops, farms, and construction sites. They will also be forced into working very long hours, in terrible conditions. These modern day slaves will be forced to reside in places known as hot bunks, with single sleeping quarters, which will be used by rotating shift workers. Victims will face constant verbal abuse and threats of physical violence. They will be compelled to hand over most, if not all, of their earnings to the traffickers. Although most victims may wish to flee, but their fear of physical violence, lack of energy, feelings of guilt, and an overall sense of hopelessness will keep them invisibly shackled to their traffickers. Often times, female victims will find themselves forced into domestic servitude, acting as maids, cooks, or nannies. These victims will lead lives of isolation, having little or no unsupervised freedom, completely cut off from the rest of the world. There will be no privacy provided. Personal comfort will be nonexistent, and they will be forced to sleep on nothing more than a rug or bare mattress in an open area or hallway (Diaz et al. ). Such is the case of a Filipina woman recently rescued from a Maryland couple who forced her into domestic servitude. The couple has been arrested and charged with human trafficking and other immigration violations. According to the indictment, the couple from Maryland enticed the victim to come to the United States to work as their domestic servant. The defendants lured the victim, an impoverished, uneducated, mother of eight children, using false promises of a salary that would support her children in the Philippines. The defendants procured a fraudulent visa to allow the victim to enter the United States; confiscated the victim’s documents after she arrived; and compelled her labor for 18 hours a day over a period of 10 years, using a scheme of threats, assaults, withholding of documents, withholding of pay and a peonage contract to coerce the victim’s continued service (â€Å"Maryland Couple Charged†). Although the numbers of victims of forced labor and domestic servitude are on the rise, sexual exploitation remains the most prevalent form of human trafficking. Sexual exploitation is considered to be non-consensual or abusive sexual acts performed without a victim’s permission. This includes but is not limited to prostitution, escort work and pornography. Women, men and children of both sexes can be victims. Most disturbing is the number of children that are victims of sexual exploitation. In one report, it is estimated that at least seventy percent of the women involved in prostitution are victims of human trafficking and were introduced to the commercial sex trade before they were eighteen years of age. (Kotrla). Quite often children are abducted and forced into prostitution or pornography and never heard from again. Shauna Newell was one of the lucky ones. At the time of her abduction, she was a typical 16 year old who loved to hang out with friends, so when a new friend invited her to spend the night she was very excited and convinced her mother to allow her to do so. After she did not return home, Shauna’s mother called police who took the approach that the girl had run away and took no immediate action. Shauna’s family initiated their own search and just by chance on the third day she was spotted in the back seat of a car by her brother at a convenience store. Shauna was rescued but her abductors escaped. As it turns out, the girl’s â€Å"father† was really a convicted felon, and the girl, who had a record of prostitution in Texas, was an accomplice in the abduction. For three days Shauna was beaten and raped. She also contracted an STD. Her abductor told her he had sold her over the internet for $300,000. Fortunately, Shauna was rescued before the deal could take place. Many times the victims of human trafficking come in contact with local law enforcement, but because of a lack of training, the modern day slaves are not recognized as victims but viewed as perpetrators instead. The fear of reprisal against themselves or their family members keeps the victims from speaking out against traffickers. Consequently, they are willing to face arrest and jail time rather than the trafficker’s anger. Health care providers also come in contact with modern day slaves seeking treatment for injuries inflicted by the trafficker, labor induced injuries, or possibly an STD’s, yet will not recognize the patient as a victim of human trafficking because they are not trained to look for the appropriate signals. If more local law enforcement and health care providers receive proper training in identifying victims of human trafficking it would be easier to provide the right care and assistance as was the case for one 16 year old girl trafficked from Mexico. In one recently reported incident, a sixteen year old Mexican girl was found to have been trafficked across the US border. Doctors noticed the heavily pregnant girl showed clear signs of physical abuse when she was brought into a hospital in Dayton to give birth. The police were called but the couple who had brought her had already fled. When the girl’s story emerged, it became clear she had been kept against her will in the nearby city of Springfield and used for labor and sex. â€Å"I thought slavery ended a few centuries ago. But here it is alive and well,† said Springfield’s sheriff, Gene Kelly (Harris). During the late 1990’s the public’s interest in human trafficking issues grew and demands for stricter laws against it followed. In response to public demand, the United States government enacted the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act in the year 2000. This legislation was introduced to prevent trafficking, identify and protect victims, and prosecute offenders. Since 2000, forty two states have enacted their own anti-trafficking laws, yet the expected numbers of arrests and prosecutions not been met whether locally or on a federal level. Miriam Potocki, Director of the National Social Workers Association wrote an article in which she claims that since the date of enactment VTVPA, there has been little transparency or accountability in policy implementation; only a small number of immigrant victims have been identified, and there is almost no evidence regarding effectiveness of victim services, and prosecution is highly problematic. Fundamentally, because there is no rational approach to the policy implementation, public funds are wasted (Potocky). In conclusion, human trafficking violates a person’s inalienable right to freedom yet there are more victims today than 150 years ago and the United States is not doing enough to eliminate it. Stronger penalties are needed to deter individuals or groups from continuing to exploit victims and force them into slavery, either through forced labor, domestic servitude or sexual exploitation. Local law enforcement agencies as well as health care providers need to be better informed regarding human trafficking issues so they can readily spot victims as well as the traffickers. By providing better rescue and assistance programs for human trafficking victim the Unites States can set the standard for eliminating modern day slavery. President Barack Obama said it best, during his speech at the Clinton Global Initiative in September 2012 when he said, â€Å"Nations must speak with one voice– that our people and our children are not for sale† (â€Å"Obama†). (1645) Works Cited Diaz, Muriel et. al. â€Å"Globalization and Human Trafficking†. Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare. 34. 2 (June 2007): p107. Academic OneFile. Web. 12 April, 2013 Feingold, David A. , â€Å"Human Trafficking†. Foreign Policy. No. 150. Newsweek Interactive (Sept. -Oct. , 2005), 26-30, 32. Web. Apr. 12, 2013 Harris, Paul. â€Å"Forced Labour and Rape, The New Face Of Slavery In America†. The Observer. 21 Nov. 2009. Academic OneFile Web. 12 April, 2013 Kotrla, K. â€Å"Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking In the United States† Social Work 55. 2 (2010): 181-187. Academic OneFile. Web. 15 Apr. 2013. â€Å"Maryland Couple Charged With Domestic Servitude Of Filipina Woman† States News Service 8 June 2011. Academic OneFile. Web. 20 Apr. 2013 Megumi, Makisaka, â€Å"Human Trafficking: A Brief Overview†. WorldBank. org. No. 122/. December 2009. Academic OneFile. Web. Apr. 12, 2013. â€Å"Obama Calls Human Trafficking ‘Slavery,’ Announces New Measure†. StatesNewsService. 25 Sept. 2012. Academic OneFile. Web. 21 Apr. 2013. Palermo, George B. , â€Å"From Bad To Worse, A Note On Human Trafficking†, International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology, August, 2012, Vol. 56(5), p. 671-672, Web, Apr. 12, 2013. http://ijo. sagepub. com/ Potocki, Miriam. â€Å"The Travesty of Human Trafficking: A Decade Of Failed U. S. Policy†. Oxford University Press. Social Work. 55. 4 (Oct. 2010): p373. Web. 12 Apr. 2013. Winterdyk, John, Philip, Reichel. â€Å"Introduction to Special Issue – Human Trafficking: Issues and Perspectives†. European Journal of Criminology. January 2010 vol. 7 no. 1 5-10. Web. April 12, 2013.

Research paper (predicting the number of internet users) Essay

Research paper (predicting the number of internet users) - Essay Example Ethically, sharing of data for other purposes other than the intended is un-ethical (Callahan 1998) To get a best predictor of the number of internet users, the researcher used multivariate linear regression. In this type of methodology, each of the predictor variable is modelled against the response variable, in this case the number of internet users. This process is carried over with different combinations of the explanatory variables and the values of R, coefficient of correlation, and R2, coefficient of determination for the different models are calculated. The model with the highest value of R is normally selected as the best fitting model for the data (Bryman 1992). R2 explains the variations in the response variable readings. In this case, the researcher used all the explanatory variables in the initial model and used the backwards which eliminates the variables which are not better placed to explain the response variable as anticipated. The only problem with this technique is that it may result in the elimination of explanatory variables even before their effects on the entire model have been determined. As a best practice, I suggest individual simple regression equations to determine the individual effects on the response variable and then stepwise inclusion of the variables (Hinton 1995).

American Beer Market Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

American Beer Market - Case Study Example US sales and market shares are shown in the following: Bud Light has seen a 2% growth in 2008 which is greater than other light beer competitor. The brand still remains as the top-selling beer in global terms. Growth drivers include rising market share in Mexico which went up 27% in 2008 and made the brand Mexico's No.1 light beer brand. This was due to the equity investment made by the company to the Grupo Modelo S.A.B. de C.V. which has 56% of the Mexico beer market. In Canada, sales volume went up by 30% due to innovative marketing strategies and sponsorships of popular teams in the National Hockey League like the Toronto Blue Jays. Anheuser-Busch has also set its eyes in China's emerging and burgeoning market. A production facility has already been established in the country where the main product to be made was Bud Lite. The company has also teamed up with China's oldest and largest brewery, Tsingtao. In October of 2007, owners of Miller and Coors announced a joint venture to try to unsettle the behemoth Anheuser-Busch which had 51% of the total beer market. Miller commands 18% while Coors has 11%. The said merger entitled Miller to a 52% economic interest while the rest is to Coors. The joint-venture, MillerCoors, was expected to benefit from an estimated $500 million from the integration of its distribution system and market shares.

Criminal Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 3

Criminal Law - Essay Example The focus of the Commission’s report had one two different and competing objectives. The first one being that of enhancing the scope of the criminal law of fraud so as to prosecute fraudsters successfully and award them with appropriate sentence, however, this had to be balanced so that unacceptable restriction were not placed on personal freedom or the law to become so vague that it would be contrary to rule of law. The other one was to do away with the weak and inconsistent conspiracy to defraud, under which it was a crime for two people to agree to do something which, in the absence of an agreement, either of them could lawfully do. The Commission went on to conclude that if a general fraud offence would be introduced, criminal law could be improved as they thought it would be more understandable by juries. The charges which were being used in such trials were numerous, and in their opinion none of them gave a clear meaning of â€Å"fraud†. The statutory offences in their opinion were too specific and so did not provide a clear portrayal of fraud; and the common law offence of conspiracy to defraud was wide and it was not of much help when looking for a distinction between fraudulent and lawful conduct.1 Further, it was stated that a general offence of fraud would lead to effective prosecution, as there had been times when certain specific offences were charged wrongly as there were other suitable offences. Further, there were cases under conspiracy to defraud brought about by prosecution which would never have been charged if a generalized crime with a clear definition had been there. Thus, such problem had lead to higher costs of appeal and unfair acquittals Finally, a single crime of fraud in the opinion of the Commission would have led to simplification of the law of fraud, which would be helpful in determining whether an act

Working in a Diverse Work Environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Working in a Diverse Work Environment - Essay Example Working in a diversified work environment has many advantages both to the employees and to the organization. A diverse workforce is beneficial to the organization and to the country as a whole since it increases the rate of economic growth. The sustainability of the human capital in any organization is enriched by the involvement of different races, women, nonages and even homosexuals in the work force. Each individual despite their characteristic has at least one factor that other people do not have and this small factor could be what the company is lacking for its success. People should not be judged by their sexuality, beliefs or race when being recruited into the job environment if the company has to realize this unique benefit. This benefits overflows to the economic growth of the country since the more revenue will be collected from the profits of the company. The involvement of all kinds of people in the workforce also leads to growth in the GDP(Cope and Kalantzis,2013, p.17). Bringing together people from different races, cultures and regions leads to more effectiveness in marketing of the products. Consumers find it easy to purchase a product just because it has a close relationship with them. The Avis Company in Australia experienced increased number of women customers because of employing women drivers. Diversification of the work force creates a market situation where each customer has a reason to get associated with company or their products and thus sales are increased.

Economics College Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Economics College - Research Paper Example Example of cigarette consumption by a die-hard smoker who hardly changes his smoking habit and consume as many number of cigarettes as he smoked earlier in spite of the bigger rise in its price. Unitary Elastic demand curve that may be sloping down uniformly in such a way to register equal proportionate increase or decrease in demand for a good in response to given proportionate fall or rise in its price 1.1 Demand for necessities and luxury in daily life. The rise and fall of prices of essentials makes no differences in demand pattern at least for short period. Similarly the rise in the prices of luxurious goods does not affect their demand because of the income status of the consumers in that segment is high enough to reduce the demand. 1.3 : In case the commodity has a substitute the increase in the prise of the primary one will lead consumers to shift to the substitute. In this case the demand will remain relatively elastic and the demand curve will slope down. The tea price being raised consumers would readily shift to coffee provided it satisfies the taste. 1.4 Technological changes in the product make the consumers unable to or difficult to shift its demand for cheaper or better good. Here the demand remains relatively inelastic to the change in price. ... Consumers are already using some other non electrical goods or geared to other system. Increase of electricity consumption depends upon buying and using more sophisticated electrical gadgets. Buying is not a function of electricity price but the income and need. 1.5 Imperfect knowledge about market is a factor that accounts for price inelasticity of demand in which condition the fall in price of a commodity would not lead rise in demand for that good in the short run because consumers are not aware about the change. This would not enable the demand curve to fall in short time at least. B. The effect of unitary elastic demand defined above for good in response to change in price term on total revenue is neutral because there would be equal and proportionate change in demand for goods in response to the given proportionate change in price. The amount spent on that particular good would be same as before the price change as shown in the following chart1 and diagram1: When the elasticity is unitary the demand for good changes from PQ to P1Q1 at the fall of price in such a way to spend the same amount of money to buy higher quantity P1Q1 to satisfy. Here the out lay of PROQ is equal to P1R1OQ1 Chart 1 Total Outlay method Elasticity=1 Price $ Demand/no. Outlay/$ 10 70 700 5 140 700 2 350 700 Chart 2 Total Outlay method Elasticity.>1 Price $ Demand/ no. Outlay/$ 10 70 700 5 170 850 2 500 1000 Chart3 Total Outlay Method Elasticity

NHS Development Since 1948 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

NHS Development Since 1948 - Essay Example This is good because it will ensure that clinical standards are met and there are processes to ensure continuous improvement backed by a new statutory duty for quality in NHS trusts. The Commission for Health Improvement (CHI) has been established to support and oversee the quality of clinical services locally, and tackle shortcomings. It intervenes by invitation or the Secretary of States’ direction where a problem has not been gripped. The focus is given on key areas such as life long learning, risk management, performance indicators, evidence-based practice and professional self-regulation. Life long learning is a positive step, for the NHS staff will have the opportunity to continuously update their skills and knowledge to offer the most modern, effective and high-quality care to patients. Likewise, risk management is required so that Trusts comply with the Trusts Risk Management Policy and the Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992. This will certainly reduce hazards both for patients and staff. The use of performance indicators serves to highlight low or high achievement and to, therefore, raise questions about services provided. However, they represent only one of the several types of analysis. More detailed investigation of trends over time and the use of qualitative data should also be used. Evidence Based Practice is a good step for it will lead to a conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care individual patients.

Project Estimating Techniques Essay Example for Free

Project Estimating Techniques Essay One of the most important factors to the success of a project is how well the project is estimated, as well as how overall costs are managed during the execution phase by the project manager. Project costs and estimates are vital to the success of any organization to remain competitive in the market. Cost estimating for organizations rely heavily on resources that can sometimes be difficult to obtain. Forecasting and utilizing historical return costs are just a couple of ways that organizations rely on estimating. Experienced planners are often a sought trade within the market; this paper will discuss some often used project cost estimating techniques. Types of Estimating The first type of estimating is analogous. This type of estimating utilizes estimates from a previous project that is similar, and uses them to build estimates for the new project. While this type of estimating is beneficial to the planning process, caution must be used to ensure that estimates carried over from the previous project are fair and reasonable. Parametric estimation takes historical data inputs, makes calculated assumptions based on market and statistical data, and then formulates the estimate. This type of estimating is useful as it does use historical data, coupled with statistical data; however, assumptions made by the planner can be skewed and lead to inaccurate estimates in my opinion. The next type of estimating is bottom-up. Bottom-up estimating utilizes information from individual estimates through the Work Break Down structure. This type of estimating is one of the most common types of estimating because it uses estimates from the floor tasks. These floor tasks are estimated by subject matter experts with years of experience, and can be very beneficial to ensuring that not only the estimate is accurate, but the scope of the task is correct. Another type of estimating is three-point estimating. Three-point estimating takes a look at the best, worst, and most realistic scenario to cost estimating the project. These three options obviously come with a  premium on cost, time, or quality. Dependent on what the project objective is will more than likely determine what route to take in this process. From my work experience with project planning, cost estimating can be a very difficult task. Most organizations have a method or process in how to cost estimate. Some utilize checklists, while others may standard operating procedures as part of an organizational policy. Regardless of what tools are available to a project team during the cost estimating process, knowing the overall goals and objectives of the project are keys to estimating a successful project. The burden of cost estimating is not normally the responsibility of one individual; it often lies within the project team. Multiple estimators from various skills are part of the process, and all types of estimating as discussed earlier are part of the process. Tools that my organization utilizes are bid specification review meetings that go over the material, labor, and rates that apply to the work being conducted during the project. In addition, an independent government estimate (IGE) is utilized to ensure that estimates are filled out thoroughly, and reviewed against the contractor’s estimates upon receipt. There are many other processes that can be used; however, these are the most commonly one’s used within government estimating. Conclusion Cost estimating is a very important part of the project planning process as it often dictates the duration of the project, and how much work can be accomplished during the project against the budget given for the project. Estimates of time and cost together allow the manager to develop a time-phased budget, which is imperative for project control (Larson Gray, 2014, p. 131). While there are many different ways that estimates are created, there is no sure fire way in stating that one is better than the other. While some may think that historical data is a more accurate way, there is not telling that the estimate and return costs from a previous project were fair and reasonable. If the previous project cost was overestimated, then the current project would continue to be overestimated; therefore not proving to be a cost benefit to the organization. Cost estimating drives the project plan, and organizations need to ensure they utilize all the tools and resources they have available to them to make the  project a success. Reference Larson, E. W., Gray, C. F. (2014). Project Management: The Managerial Process (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

International Human Resource Management At Iceland Business Essay

International Human Resource Management At Iceland Business Essay Current business changes have also led to difference in viewpoint and opinion of strategists who now believe that HRM and Personnel management are two completely different scenarios where HRM is a broader concept mainly responsible for managing a large number of manpower for efficient working of the firm. On the contrary Personnel management is more inclined towards supervision and administration related to payroll and legal scenarios of labour employment. Looking at the working environment of Iceland and other food companies, the difference between personnel management and human resources is quite clear. In the sense that, Human resource management of Iceland encompasses and promotes personnel management tasks and also develops and groom the workforce for attaining maximum efficiency and improving the working of the organization. As personnel management is reactive, human resource management is proactive, involving a holistic approach to continuous development of employee skills to handle personnel related tasks and activities A major difference between the two lies in the fact that personnel management is responsible for employee satisfaction which is realized through incentives , bonuses, rewards etc whereas HRM practice in the firm works on the ground that enhanced performance of employees through challenging work, job creativity etc leads to employee satisfaction. HR Specialists Role and Responsibilities HR specialists are quite influential and have a unique role in managing the human workforce of the firm. Iceland too recognizes the importance of a HR specialist who is mainly responsible to attain and extract the maximum potential and capacity through the firms human workforce. They are involved in functions of staffing, training and development, labor relations etc. on the whole a HR strategists role can be categorized under three main heads, the strategic process, the legal aspects and the operational aspects (Carolyn W, 1992). Under strategic process, HR specialists are involved in: Strategic planning They perform the role of a consultant who advices the management in all key areas A diagnostician who identifies the various loopholes and recommends necessary action for the same innovator/change agent who implements the dynamic changes in the corporate practices of the firm A catalyst who triggers the positive areas of business A cost manager who minimizes cost and maximizes returns. Under legal process, HR specialist performs the role of: Auditor/controller who assesses the companys personnel policies and strategies A consultant who advices the company on personnel matters and issues related to employment laws and other areas A conciliator who acts as a peace maker and negotiator for resolving conflicts and issues arising between different employees and existing workforce (Carolyn W, 1992). From operational perspective, HR specialist Deals with handling daily operations such as staffing, compensation, appraisal, rewards etc Interface between employees and management regarding the framing of employee policies and procedures Coordinating and motivating employees (Carolyn W, 1992). 1.3 Line Managers are Responsible to Manage People at Work Line managers have a special role to play in managing people as they reside in the lower layers of management hierarchy and deal with people who have no obligation or any sort of managerial responsibility (Hutchinson S HYPERLINK http://www.cipd.co.uk/research/_bringpolstolife.htmHYPERLINK http://www.cipd.co.uk/research/_bringpolstolife.htm Purcell J, 2003). Line managers execute a critical role in implementing HR policies and strategies. Their role revolves around: Managing people effectively Minimizing operational costs to maximum possible extent Extending and forwarding technical advice and guidance Assigning work and allocating tasks Continuous monitoring and supervising work Detect errors and take prompt corrective actions Handling customers effectively Setting standards for measuring operational performance of the firm When it comes to managing people effectively, line managers perform vital functions such as Performance appraisal of employees Imparting training and counselling to new recruits and existing workforce Maintaining proper communication and employee involvement Maintaining work life balance etc Giving due recognition to employees (HYPERLINK http://www.cipd.co.uk/research/_bringpolstolife.htmHutchinson S HYPERLINK http://www.cipd.co.uk/research/_bringpolstolife.htmHYPERLINK http://www.cipd.co.uk/research/_bringpolstolife.htm Purcell J, 2003) Thus well managed front line managers help in leading high productive and high performing workforce. It is the organizations and senior management responsibility to promote and support capable and efficient line managers by clearly drafting their role and responsibility. RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION PROCESS Human Resource Planning Process in Iceland Iceland being one of the renowned frozen food chains depends a lot on the human resource department which is well managed through s systematic human resources planning process that helps in anticipating the end results of the applied business strategy in regard to the firm human resources. The HR planning also involves the need of required workforce with special skill and competencies to perform the necessary tasks and activities. The Iceland human resource planning process involves the following steps: Analyzing the already existing organizational plans Secondly to forecast the demand of the total headcounts required in the firm Then forecasting the supply, that is obtaining data about current human resource present in the market and future changes Fourthly, the net human resource requirements are finalized considering all the departments of the firm After which, the deployments, retrenchments etc are taken into consideration and future demand is planned In case future deficits are confronted, reference plans are also chalked out. Lastly, the plan to modify and adjust the organizational plan in accordance with the market changes is also taken into account. Analysis After analyzing the human resource planning process of Iceland Company, it can be deducted that the information system regarding human resources is still inadequate. The internal deficiencies are well accounted for but the external market changes are not acknowledged such as the labour market, the current trends in human resources etc are not well adapted into the human resource system. Thus, the global perspective needs to be included in the entire process for giving the procedure a holistic view. The stages involved in the planning process in Iceland consist of: 2.2 Link Between Human Resource Planning and Organization Structured Process. The human resource planning of the firm has a deep impact on the structure of the organization, the needed information and the three stages including strategic, intermediate and operational levels of the planning process in various forms which involve: Organizations work culture is affected if things are taken in a casual and unsystematic manner such as a distance is created between the key decision makers and the workforce, secondly senior management no more remains trustworthy, reduces the contribution from the workforce in terms of creativity, risk taking, new talent is reluctant to be a part of the company, the image of the company is hindered, infact the entire process is impeded. The human resource succession planning is affected which may further lead to improper promotions or demotions, team evaluation, inappropriate performance reviews leads to hindered employee development etc. The operation costs are intensely affected by human resource decisions such as high turnover cost, replacement cost, slack time , hampered motivation, restructuring of employee cost, health cost , increase in insurance costs etc Ultimately the workforce is affected which in turn has an impact on the organizations working and performance such as reduced productivity, sub standard customer service quality etc. 2.3 Interview Selection Technique Evaluation Most of the organizations depend mainly on the interview technique to select the required workforce. Iceland is also one of them where potential candidates are screened and selected by conducting various interviews at different stages of selection process. Iceland is now the only food retailer recognized among the best 25 companies of UK having more than 200 stores running in different countries. Such wide network requires huge labour that is selected after conducting various interviews such as: Preliminary interview Core interview Decision Making Interview Various levels of interviewing help the organization to extract the best talent from the market as the initial rounds help to better general interaction with the candidate and judge his suitability for the job. Many candidates who are not suitable for the organization and its work culture are eliminated right in the beginning of the process that saves a considerable amount of time and cost to the company. Selection by Invitation: one of the methods of selection could be inviting the key executives of competitors by constantly observing their performance and offering them attractive incentives and benefits. Such technique helps in saving tremendous cost and time to the company and attracting the best and experienced candidates. Leasing: Company may benefit by leasing that is employee expert and depute the employees to the needy companies on a lease basis. In regard to which the leasing company charges a reasonable amount. Such kind of activity helps the organization to utilize the resources in the best optimum manner and select candidates as and when required without much hassles. 360Â ° Selection Programme: Involvement of subordinates, employees working at the same level of job are better in determining the skills, knowledge and performance of potential candidates as they are accustomed and tuned to the specific job environment. A 360Â ° appraisal is the best fit between the job and the candidate and at the same time lessens the burden of the superior administrators as well. Thus the above procedure and techniques can help Iceland to put into practice a rigorous and dynamic selection process for attracting the best talent within the organization. The core interviewing is conducted for potential candidates where major emphasis lie on stress interview and probing technique as the candidates are required to deal with customers of various nature and temperament. Depth interviews are also considered where special skills of candidates are examined by judging critical answers to posed questions. Such drilling exercise helps in understanding the mental capacity of individual to handle stress and intense situations. The candidates behaviour during the interview process is a good criteria to determine his reasoning and analytical abilities. Finally the decision making or the final interview is conducted whereby the top authorities or managers examine the interest level of the candidates for the job and find about his acceptance and decide whether to select the candidate or not. Icelands interviewing process is rigorous and in-depth which eliminates the changes of wrong decisions and adding extra cost to the company. Various aspects of interviewing are taken into account which renders the entire process a structured approach. The company is able to select the best pool of talent through its own skills and capabilities. Alternative methods of selection Selection by Invitation: one of the methods of selection could be inviting the key executives of competitors by constantly observing their performance and offering them attractive incentives and benefits. Such technique helps in saving tremendous cost and time to the company and attracting the best and experienced candidates. Leasing: Company may benefit by leasing that is employee expert and depute the employees to the needy companies on a lease basis. In regard to which the leasing company charges a reasonable amount. Such kind of activity helps the organization to utilize the resources in the best optimum manner and select candidates as and when required without much hassles. 360Â ° Selection Programme: Involvement of subordinates, employees working at the same level of job are better in determining the skills, knowledge and performance of potential candidates as they are accustomed and tuned to the specific job environment. A 360Â ° appraisal is the best fit between the job and the candidate and at the same time lessens the burden of the superior administrators as well. Thus the above procedure and techniques can help Iceland to put into practice a rigorous and dynamic selection process for attracting the best talent within the organization. 2.4 Recruitment and Selection Process of Iceland Iceland is regarded to be one of the highest rated among the big companies to hire the best talent available and provide complete staff satisfaction like pay and benefits. The practices and procedures adopted in the selection process by the company are best taking into perspective the legal framework as well. The recruitment and selection procedures of the firm comply with the IPCCs diversity policy which includes the requirement of the following acts: The Sex Discrimination Act, 1975 The Race Relation Act, (1976, 2003) The disability Discrimination Act, 1995 The Employment Equality(Sexual Orientation) Regulation, 2003 The Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulation, 2003 (IPCC, retrieved on 17th September, 2010) All interviews are conducted by authorized panel who design competency based questions. Proper pre and post arrangements for interviews are made and decisions for appointment are based on the content, qualification, performance and the right to work norms in the UK (IPCC, retrieved on 17HYPERLINK http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=vq=cache:ZzAuwNGdp24J:www.ipcc.gov.uk/foi/agreed_recruitment_and_selection_policy-4.pdf+legal+requirements+of+selection+in+UKhlthHYPERLINK http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=vq=cache:ZzAuwNGdp24J:www.ipcc.gov.uk/foi/agreed_recruitment_and_selection_policy-4.pdf+legal+requirements+of+selection+in+UKhl September, 2010) . Proper reference and security checks and clearances are made. Iceland follows complete legal norms to select candidates, hence no major discrepancies are found in the selection procedure. PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES FOR MONITORING AND REWARDING EMPLOYEES 3.1 Iceland Job Evaluation Process Job evaluation is conducted in the firm in order to rank the jobs on the basis of certain duties, responsibilities and performance attached with the job. In accordance to which the pay package is designed and defined keeping the minimum and maximum limits intact. Information about every job type is retrieved through the medium of job analysis questionnaire, job descriptions, observations and interviews involving 360 Â ° selection processes. Based on the above information, each job is rated based on evaluation factors which comprise of: Education Experience (Technical and Commercial) Problem Solving Impact Physical Effort Executive ability Analytical skills Complexity of job Iceland makes use of both the Non quantitative techniques as well the Quantitative Techniques of job evaluation such as the Ranking Methods including paired comparison, simple ranking, points rating method as well. The Equity motivational theory is applicable in Iceland also where the concerned managers should consider the balance between the input and resulting rewards taking into consideration the input factors such as loyalty, diligence, ability, skill, enthusiasm, support, patience, sincerity, trust, relation with superior etc , backed by reward or output in form of financial and no financial rewards such as wage increase, increased job responsibility, recognition, appreciation , tangible monetary benefits, job security etc (Baxamusa N B, retrieved on 17HYPERLINK http://www.buzzle.com/articles/equity-theory-of-motivation.htmlthHYPERLINK http://www.buzzle.com/articles/equity-theory-of-motivation.html September, 2010). The equity theory works best when the over recognized and benefitted employees are able to produce higher output and quality service and on the contrary the less rewarded employees tend to decrease their output when they compare themselves with other employees. It becomes the utmost responsibility of the managers to link the rewards with the performance and efficiency of the employee. For this consistent development programmes, regular meetings, and discussions can be undertaken to communicate with employees and make things more clear for better understanding and fairly link reward with performance. Such kind of evaluation process is logical and objective in nature as it helps to include the newly created job in the pre existing structure of the firm. The undesirable factors of evaluation are eliminated such as fluctuations in market rate etc and help to attain fair wage and uniformity in fixing wages for all employees. Maximum employee satisfaction is realized by maintaining wage equity and sound evaluation structure. 3.2 Reward System There are different reward systems that can be linked to the organizational compensation packages offered by Iceland to boost up the morale and productivity of employees (Stockley D. 2006)HYPERLINK http://www.google.co.in/search?hl=enq=Motivation+and+financial+and+non-. Monetary Reward System Payment for unproductive work in form of Hours of work Paid holidays Paid vacations Security of employees Retrenchment compensation Lay off Compensation Safety and Health Workmens Compensation Health Benefits Welfare Recreational Facilities Canteen Benefit Housing Benefit Legal Aid Holiday Homes Educational Benefit Transportation benefit Old Age and Retirement Benefits Provident Fund Insurance Gratuity Medical benefits Non Monetary Reward Treats Free Meals Festival bashes Dinners Knick Knacks Accessories Planners Recognition Letters of appreciation Plaques Social Acknowledgement Informal Recognition Solicitation of advice Memberships On the Job Benefit Enhanced responsibility Job rotation Training Special tasks All the above rewards in some form or the other have a deep impact on the performance of employees as: Positive Impact Employees are motivated to work to the best of their potential Build self esteem and confidence Increased loyalty Easy acceptance to change Close bondage between company and self Negative Impact Demotivational impact on employees under conditions of biasness Short sightedness Unhealthy competition 3.3 Motivation Theory and Icelands Reward System Icelands reward system could be directly linked to the Adams Equity Theory of Motivation which believes that the factors of motivation can affect the performance of employees and their relationship with the employer as well (Baxamusa N B, retrieved on 17HYPERLINK http://www.buzzle.com/articles/equity-theory-of-motivation.htmlthHYPERLINK http://www.buzzle.com/articles/equity-theory-of-motivation.html September, 2010). The theory is based on the belief that if the employees inputs are more in comparison to the benefits or rewards derived, it can lead to employee dissatisfaction and reduced productivity. The Equity motivational theory is applicable in Iceland also where the concerned managers should consider the balance between the input and resulting rewards taking into consideration the input factors such as loyalty, diligence, ability, skill, enthusiasm, support, patience, sincerity, trust, relation with superior etc , backed by reward or output in form of financial and no financial rewards such as wage increase, increased job responsibility, recognition, appreciation , tangible monetary benefits, job security etc (Baxamusa N B, retrieved on 17HYPERLINK http://www.buzzle.com/articles/equity-theory-of-motivation.htmlthHYPERLINK http://www.buzzle.com/articles/equity-theory-of-motivation.html September, 2010). The equity theory works best when the over recognized and benefitted employees are able to produce higher output and quality service and on the contrary the less rewarded employees tend to decrease their output when they compare themselves with other employees. It becomes the utmost responsibility of the managers to link the rewards with the performance and efficiency of the employee. For this consistent development programmes, regular meetings, and discussions can be undertaken to communicate with employees and make things more clear for better understanding and fairly link reward with performance. 3.4 Iceland Monitoring Strategy Iceland has a well planned strategy to monitor the performance of employees that includes: Reviewing work of employees on a consistent basis Regularly observing the activities of employees and guiding them when require Preparing charts, records and using techniques for measuring performance Encouraging self reporting by employees Timely redressal of complaints and issues for uninterrupted performance The latest methods of performance monitoring are adopted by the company such as the Balanced Scorecard method that involves a holistic approach of monitoring by taking into various perspectives such as customer perspective, financial perspective, training and development perspective and innovative aspect as well. After defining the various factors on which the performance is analyzed such as efficiency, growth, training, development, productivity, behaviour, relations, creativity and innovation at work etc, methods such as Gantt chart is prepared this is a pictorial description of employees performance. Thus, a comprehensive performance analysis is conducted by Iceland which helps to depict a fair view of efforts put in by candidates. The Equity motivational theory is applicable in Iceland also where the concerned managers should consider the balance between the input and resulting rewards taking into consideration the input factors such as loyalty, diligence, ability, skill, enthusiasm, support, patience, sincerity, trust, relation with superior etc , backed by reward or output in form of financial and no financial rewards such as wage increase, increased job responsibility, recognition, appreciation , tangible monetary benefits, job security etc (Baxamusa N B, retrieved on 17HYPERLINK http://www.buzzle.com/articles/equity-theory-of-motivation.htmlthHYPERLINK http://www.buzzle.com/articles/equity-theory-of-motivation.html September, 2010). The equity theory works best when the over recognized and benefitted employees are able to produce higher output and quality service and on the contrary the less rewarded employees tend to decrease their output when they compare themselves with other employees. It becomes the utmost responsibility of the managers to link the rewards with the performance and efficiency of the employee. For this consistent development programmes, regular meetings, and discussions can be undertaken to communicate with employees and make things more clear for better understanding and fairly link reward with performance. The Equity motivational theory is applicable in Iceland also where the concerned managers should consider the balance between the input and resulting rewards taking into consideration the input factors such as loyalty, diligence, ability, skill, enthusiasm, support, patience, sincerity, trust, relation with superior etc , backed by reward or output in form of financial and no financial rewards such as wage increase, increased job responsibility, recognition, appreciation , tangible monetary benefits, job security etc (Baxamusa N B, retrieved on 17HYPERLINK http://www.buzzle.com/articles/equity-theory-of-motivation.htmlthHYPERLINK http://www.buzzle.com/articles/equity-theory-of-motivation.html September, 2010). The equity theory works best when the over recognized and benefitted employees are able to produce higher output and quality service and on the contrary the less rewarded employees tend to decrease their output when they compare themselves with other employees. It becomes the utmost responsibility of the managers to link the rewards with the performance and efficiency of the employee. For this consistent development programmes, regular meetings, and discussions can be undertaken to communicate with employees and make things more clear for better understanding and fairly link reward with performance. 4. EXIT FROM THE ORGANIZATION 4.1 Employee exit procedure in Iceland On the contrary, when the exit procedure of Iceland was compared with ASDA it was found that the above procedure was quite similar to ASDA, however ASDA adopts an in-depth interview procedure with extra steps such as analysis of exit interview, reasons for absenteeism, Work Interview, analysis of labour turnover, comprehensive Exit Interview Data analysis judging the company benefits provided etc Analysis The organizations have drafted suitable exit procedures in order to determine the reasons for employee exits, yet they cant be termed as best. They are scope for improvement and modification as little emphasis is laid on the employee background and his contribution towards the organization. A fair view can be extracted only when organizational inputs and employee outputs are compared. Thus while studying about the exit analysis, managers should also emphasize on the employee relations with the firm and subordinates. On the whole, the procedure adopted is satisfactory and solves the purpose for the same. Employee Redundancy Redundancy is a situation when the organization , Iceland for this case decides to dismiss an employee on the basis of ceased business or intended to cease the area of business where the concerned dismiss employee was employed. For the redundancy to actually be called legal, it is necessary that the employee under question must completely vanish. If the organization declares any candidate redundant, it is liable to pay the necessary statutory payment in regard to it. Iceland has adopted certain criterias for declaring an employee redundant, they are: Dismissal cant be on grounds of individual capability but organizational circumstances When certain specific designations are no longer required in the company along with reasons for decease or reduction in business process In the course of a business slow down When a specific business line is altogether eliminated from the organizations business portfolio If the employees who are to be redundant are more than twenty, then the matter is to be put forward for consultation with the employees representative before making a final decision Reasons for selecting few employees from the group for redundancy The selection criteria is not based on any unfair means such as race, age, sex or any disability Conclusion Iceland has been able to formulate a systematic and well organized human resource management policy and strategy in the organization, keeping into consideration all the details right from human resource planning to redundancy. Their recruitment and selection criteria are as per the norms of the UK government and in accordance with the legal requirements as well. The company aims to impart maximum employee satisfaction in all respects.

Feminism And Feminist Epistemology And Science Sociology Essay

Feminism And Feminist Epistemology And Science Sociology Essay The word feminism is very challenging and difficult to describe specifically but it has a greater value in todays society mostly in the developing areas like Nepal, Srilanka, Bangladesh etc. The women of developing countries are facing so many problems like inequality from political issues to even in their house. To eradicate such inequality problem from the existing society the word feminism developed. Feminism refers to the beliefs that are injustices against women and they have been devalued and denied full equality (1). Feminism helps to exaggerate the women roles, power and their contribution to the society. It gives the full freedom to the women about their choices of lives. This feminism refers to the equality between men and women. They have equal rights and responsibility towards the society. In the mid-1800s the term feminism was used to refer to the qualities of females (2). The term Feminism was derived from the French word feministe in the 1892 after the first international womens conference in Paris. The term feministe means belief in and advocacy of equal rights for women based on the idea of the equality of the sexes. Although the term feminism in English is rooted in the mobilization or women suffrage in Europe and the US during the late 19th and early 20th century (3). The feminist movement is divided in to three waves; First wave begin during the 19th century and it refers on a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as further political inequalities (4). The second wave in the early of 1960s, feminism saw cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and this movement encouraged women to understand aspects of their own lives as deeply politicized and reflective of a sexiest structure of power (5). The third wave movement arise ideology of A post structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality in the early 1990s (6). These three movements encourage the women for their rights and their equality. The ideology of feminism starts influencing throughout the society after this movement. It brings a revolution in the way men and women are equal to each other and effects fundamental change in society. It entails that the women have equal rights and duty as a man in all aspect. What is feminist epistemology and science? Epistemologist focus on the nature, origins and the limits of human knowledge (7). It is the nature of knowledge itself and its study focuses for acquiring knowledge and differentiate between truth and falsehood. Epistemology concerns every scientific discipline which helps to the collective efforts of human beings. In the modern days the epistemology is the debate between the empiricism (i.e., knowledge is obtained through experience) and rationalism (knowledge can be acquired through reason). There are many aspects of knowledge like social, economical and many more but many of the epistemologist focus on the social aspect of knowledge where the production creation and discovery concerns. Social epistemology is the study of the relevance of social relations, interests, and institutions to knowledge (8). Feminism has also roles in social investigation of knowledge and its epistemology is concerned to the whose knowledge is being considered. Feminist epistemologist does not confess about the empirical evidence but instead of that it suggests knowing the social contexts and social beliefs because of its factuality. Feminist epistemologists of science typically argue that the way science is done includes cultural and social standards in the description of nature. Gender is both part of the cultural idea that shapes how nature is described and is also described by the process of science. The feminist critiques of science: The feminist critique of sciences is a crucial subject where the science may be negatively impacted by postmodern or feminist critiques in a similar way to humanities and social sciences. There is also a debate between the realism and relativism. Realism is that there is an objective world which people learn about. Relativism is the idea that truth is relative in one way or another. It is easy to fall into the trap that a feminist social epistemology-and any field which it makes a statement about, even science-is relativist, and many thinkers have addressed this, either making cases that relativism is correct or making claims for a realist feminist science. Background for the feminist studies of objectivity in sciences: Objectivity is commonly taken to be the extent to which we allow our scientific beliefs to be driven by some impartial and non arbitrary criteria rather than by our wishes as to how things ought to be (9).1 Science is more objective than other areas such as art and literary criticism. To be a science the research programs must follow some criteria, certain norms and rules (i.e., scientific method) rather than the prejudices, guesses and emotions. According to the great philosophers, Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend suggested the views that emphasize the degree to which what we call science is constituted by factors that seem to fall outside the realm justification. They are not trying to focus on the extent to which science is independent of who does it but instead of that it raise the questions about the real level of objectivity in science and how the scientist outline or modeled which hypothesis or theories pass for scientific knowledge. It is the crucial things to distinct between the real sciences and the rest things (non sciences). Another philosopher, Quine also raised a question about how autonomous science is from the other subjects such as prejudices, guesses and emotions i.e., metaphysical commitments. He suggested that science is not separable from other social, political beliefs that we have. The ideas given by Kuhn and Quine raise a question about the objectivity of science and these doubts arose well within what is sometime considered traditional philosophy of science.9 When the issue of gender was raised mostly many feminists were interested in determining what the possible factors of gender counts are as a scientific knowledge. A feminist tries to find out how the gender plays a role in recreation of scientific knowledge. Moreover, Gender is related with the sexism here the word sexism refers to the male, female and assumption about the superiority of one gender to the other gender however there is no conclusive evidence for that assumption. The way of women are ignoring and demoralizing in almost every field so the feminists began to criticize on those things in which science excluded women, ignored scientific issues pertaining to women and even the scientific theories influencing by the womens societal views reveal a question about the real objectivity of science. Science as Social (Helen Longino Harding): The problem seen by Harding regarding the objectivity in science is that she assumed the traditional conceptions of objectivity. To revealing and assessing the role of cultural and personal interests and values in sciences is very difficult to measure and assess. If the role is being played by cultural and personal interests and values then it is judged to be bad for science, or if the role played is considered inappropriately large then it is argued that it need have a way to eliminate or mitigate this role, thus increasing the extent to which science is objective(10). Harding was the person who finds the way to reveal and assess interests and values in science is to examine them from an alternate point of view, and she claims that current conceptions of objectivity are inadequate for these tasks. Helen longino also face the same problem as seen by Harding and longino tries to solve this problem by focusing on how the scientific community is comprised and behaves instead of not givi ng attention to what individual scientists are doing. Longino claims that science is social, in the sense that doing science requires the interaction of individuals. Feminism and post-feminism: Feminism refers to the belief that women are equal to men. Some feminist argue that women need is not equality rather they need to be recognized and valued in their differences from men but some feminists believe that women need liberation from oppression instead of equal treatment and respect for their differences to men. Feminism seeks to improve the lot of those people who have been made into women, but it cannot rightly be said that feminism seeks to improve the condition of women that would be an impossible, self-contradictory mission (11). According to Rosalind Delmar, it makes more sense to speak of a plurality of feminism than a single one (1986:9). It means that there must be some underlying commitment that all feminist share and make them feminist. Valerie Bryson says that all feminists share the belief that women are disadvantaged in comparison with men, and that this disadvantage is not a natural and inevitable result of biological difference but something that can and should be challenged and changed (Bryson 1993: 192). But some feminists would reject even this, perhaps on the grounds that womens biology does disadvantage them but that recent technologies such as the contraceptive pill allow women to overcome their biological limitations (Firestone 1970). Post-feminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals while being critical of third wave feminist goals. The term was first used in the 1980s to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism. It is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second waves ideas.(39) Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to todays society.(40) Amelia Jones wrote that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity and criticized it using generalizations.(41) One of the earliest uses of the term was in Susan Bolotins 1982 article Voices of the Post-Feminist Generation, published in New York Times Magazine. This article was based on a number of interviews with women who largely agreed with the goals of feminism, but did not identify as feminists.(42) Some contemporary feminists, such as Katha Pollitt or Nadine Strossen, consider feminism to hold simply that women are people. Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these writers to be sexist rather than feminist.'(43)(44) Conclusion: 39.Wright, Elizabeth (2000). Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters). Totem Books. ISBN  978-1-84046-182-9. 40.^ Modleski, Tania (1991). Feminism without women: culture and criticism in a postfeminist age. New York: Routledge. pp.  188. ISBN  0-415-90416-1. 41.^ Jones, Amelia. Postfeminism, Feminist Pleasures, and Embodied Theories of Art, in New Feminist Criticism: Art, Identity, Action, ed. by Joana Frueh, Cassandra L. Langer and Arlene Raven. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 16-41, 20. 42^Rosen, Ruth (2001). The world split open: how the modern womens movement changed America. New York, N.Y.: Penguin. pp.  444. ISBN  0-14-009719-8. 43.^Pollitt, Katha (1995). Reasonable creatures: essays on women and feminism. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN  978-0-679-76278-2. 44 Strossen, Nadine (1995). Defending pornography: free speech, sex, and the fight for womens rights. New York, N.Y.: Scribner. ISBN  978-0-684-19749-4.

leonardo da vinci Essay -- essays research papers

Leonardo da Vinci Da Vinci was born April 15, 1452, and died May 2, 1519. He would wear pink to make his complexion look fresher. Leonardo never attended public school. He was raised by his single father (http://www.yesnet.yk.ca/schools/projects/renaissance/davinci.html). In the mid-1460s the family settled in Florence, where Leonardo was given the best education that Florence, the intellectual and artistic center of Italy, could offer. In Verrocchio's Baptism of Christ (http://www.geocities.com/ksalce2001/biography.html). Leonardo had no interest in women; he spent most of his time painting. Five years later he became a member of the guild of St. Luke, a painters' guild in Florence. Four years later he worked as an independent artist at his own studio in Florence (http://www.yesnet.yk.ca/schools/projects/renaissance/davinci.html). In 1483 he started to paint the first version of theVirgin. He finished it in 1485. In 1495 he made a clay model for the statue of Francesco Forza, and put it on display. In 1486 he began to explore human flight. In 1500 he went to Mantua. Da Vinci studied philosophy, natural history, anatomy, biology, medicine, optics, acoustics, science, mathematics and hydraulics (http://www.yesnet.yk.ca/schools/projects/renaissance/davinci.html). Da Vinci was an architect, musician, engineer, scientist and inventor. He sketched the first parachute, first helicopter, first aeroplane, first tank, first repeating rifle, s...

Compare and contrast Anne Hathaway and Frau Freud in Duffy’s Essay

Compare and contrast Anne Hathaway and Frau Freud in Duffy’s collection The World’s Wife There are both similarities and contrasts between ‘Anne Hathaway’ and ‘Frau Freud ‘One of the mail similarities between the two poems are the sexual references in both poems , the structure of the poems and that they are both written in a women’s voice. One of the main similarities between the poems is that they are both written by wives of two very famous men, William Shakespeare and Sigmund Freud. There are also similarities in the fact that there are sexual references in both of the poems. In ‘Anne Hathaway’ she uses these sexual connotations as a way of explaining why Shakespeare did leave her the second best bed. â€Å"The bed we loved in was a spinning world/of forests, castles, torchlight, clifftops, seas/where he would dive for peals.† In ‘Frau Freud’ the poem contains a list of euphemism for penises that men use. Duffy or Frau Freud uses these synonyms to completely debunk Freud theories with this list that brings the readers attention to Freud’s theories of the male obsession with the penis. The women in the two poems both enjoy sex, Anne Hathaway comments on how she and her husband shared their love with their actions and words. In ‘Frau Freud’ she also says that she enjoys sex â€Å"I’m as au fait with hunt-the-salami/as Ms M. Lewinsky" Another similarity between the two poems is that they are both written in sonnet form. They both contain fourteen lines and are written as a sonnet for two specific reasons. ‘Anne Hathaway’ is written in sonnet form because it was Shakespeare’s most famous and memorable form of expression. Duffy also used as a way of keeping Anne Hathaway’s love for her husband alive ... ...igraph to the poem is an extract from Shakespeare’s will which supposedly insults Anne Hathaway, but Anne explains in her sonnet to the people outside of their marriage that she would not want their best bed because this was not the bed they loved each others in. â€Å"as he held me upon that next best bed† Overall the similarities that can be seen between the two poems are mostly superficial comparisons and are not really relevant to the main themes of the poems. Even the similarities have contrasts within them, for example they are both about relations with their husbands and their sexual relationships. But Anne Hathaway looks upon Shakespeare with love and compassion, Frau Freud sees Freud as obsessive and has no emotions towards him and sees sex as a merely physical activity. So I must conclude that the poems contrast more than they are able to compare.

Geomatics : Levelling

Topic 2: Levelling Aims -Heights, datums and bench marks -Levelling equipment -Field procedure for levelling -Calculating reduced levels -Sources of error in levelling -Other levelling methods Levelling – how heights are defined Engineering surveying involves the measurement of three quantities; heights, angles and distances. Levelling it the process of measuring heights. It is possible when levelling to measure heights with an accuracy of millimetres Heights can also be measured using total stations, handheld lasers and GPS devices.However, levelling offers an inexpensive, simple and accurate method for measuring heights, and it is widely used in construction sites. Any method of measuring the heights of points above or below the ground using an agreed datum. These datum's or reference points are present in all construction sites and has an arbitrary height assigned to the point. Most construction sites will have several of these benchmarks, and if they have heights based on an arbitrary datum, they are known as Temporary Bench Marks. Heights Heights are defined using horizontal and vertical lines.The figure below shows a plumbbob suspended at point P, the direction of gravity along the plumb-line defines the vertical at point P. A horizontal or level line is any line at right angles to this For site work, any horizontal line can be chosen as a datum for heights and for levelling. The height of a point is measured along the vertical above or below the chosen datum. The height of a point relative to a datum is known as its reduced level (RL). On most construction sites there is a permanent datum. The horizontal line or surface passing through this, with its height, becomes the levelling datum.The height of the datum can be arbitrary, a value often used for this is 100. 000m. This is chosen to avoid any negative heights occurring. Any reference point on site which has had a height assigned to it is known as a bench mark. For most surveys and construction work, several bench marks would normally be established by levelling from the datum. If heights are based on an arbitrary datum these are known as Temporary Bench Marks or TBMs. Curved Surfaces Level (or horizontal) lines are always at right angles to the direction of gravity. The direction of gravity is generally towards the centre of the earth.Over large areas, as the Earth is curved, level surfaces will also be curved. For these, a height difference is measured along a vertical between two curved level surfaces. When surveying over a large area, a curved level surface of zero height has to be defined. This has been established by the Ordnance Survey, this is called the Ordnance Datum (OD). This corresponds to the average sea level measured Poolbeg or Malin Head. Heights based on these are know as OD heights. The levelling staff Levelling involves measuring vertical distances with reference to a horizontal plane or surface.To do this, a levelling staff is needed to measure vertica l distances and an instrument known as a level is required to define the horizontal plane. Many types of staff are used with varying lengths and different markings. The E-type face is commonly used in the UK and Ireland. This can be read directly to 0. 01m and by estimation to the nearest mm. The staff must be held vertically – a circular bubble is sometimes fitted to help this. Automatic Level 1. Focusing screw 2. Eyepiece 3. Foot screw 6. Tangent screw 7. Circular bubble Automatic Level 4. Horizontal circle 5. Base plate 8. Collimator (sight) 9. Object lensThe main features of the telescope 1. Object lens 2. Focusing screw 3. Focusing lens 4. Diaphragm 5. Eyepiece The object lens, focusing lens, diaphragm and eye piece are all mounted on an optical axis called the line of collimation or the line of sight. This is an imaginary line which joins the optical centre of the object lens to the centre of the cross hairs. When looking through the eye piece of the surveying telescope , a set of lines called the cross hairs can be seen. These are used for taking measurements from the staff. These cross hairs are etched on a small sheet of glass known as the diaphragm.To make the telescope work, the image of the staff is brought to a focus in the plane of the diaphragm using the focusing screw. The eyepiece is rotated so that the cross hairs are in focus and its focal point is also in the plane of the diaphragm. When looking into the telescope an observer will now see a magnified image of the levelling staff focused against the cross hairs. Parallax Parallax occurs when the focusing screw and the eyepiece is done incorrectly. This condition can be detected by moving the eye to different parts of the eyepiece when reading the staff. If different readings are obtained then parallax is present.To remove parallax, hold a sheet of paper in front of the object and adjust the eyepiece so that the cross hairs are in focus. Then remove the sheet of paper and bring the staf f into focus using the focusing screw. Once again check for parallax by moving your eye around the eyepiece. If parallax is still occurring repeat the adjustment procedure. The compensator In an automatic level, the compensator is mounted on the telescope next to the eyepiece. It will only work when the instrument has been levelled to within about 15’ of the vertical using the foot screws and circular bubble.The function of the compensator is to ensure that the line of sight viewed through the telescope is horizontal even if the telescope is tilted Tilting levels Tilting levels use a spirit level instead of a compensator to establish a horizontal line of sight. When the bubble is centred the sprit level will be horizontal. When the bubble is off centre the axis will be tilted. By attaching a sprit level to the telescope such that its axis is parallel to the line of sight a horizontal line can be set. This is done by using a tilting screw, when this is rotated the telescope is tilted a small amount in the vertical plane.The tilting screw is adjusted until the bubble is centred. Digital levels Digital levels are similar in appearance to automatic levels, a horizontal line is established by a compensator and this is done by centralising a circular bubble with the foot screws. The main difference between this and other levels is that the staff readings are taken and recorded automatically. When levelling, a special bar-coded staff is sighted, and there is no need to sight this staff as the level will do this automatically and display the measurement. It can also display the horizontal distance to the staff.The advantages of digital levels are that observations are taken without the need to read a staff or record anything by hand. Introducing this automation removes two of the most common errors when levelling, reading the staff incorrectly and writing down the wrong value in the field book. The on-board computer also calculates the heights required so that the possibility of making a mistake is removed. This makes the digital level much faster to use. Laser levels Laser levels contain a rotating laser which defines a visible horizontal plane from which distance to the ground can be made and then the height can be determined.Using a level The following steps are taken when using a level to measure heights 1. Set up the tripod 2. Ensure the top is level 3. Push legs firmly into the ground 4. Attach level 5. Use foot screws to centralise the circular bubble 6. Test to see if the compensator is working 7. Remove parallax Once the level is set up its important that the line of sight is horizontal. When the foot screws have been used to centralise the circular bubble, it is assumed that the compensator has set the line of sight to be horizontal.However, most levels are not in perfect adjustment and when levelled their line of sight is never exactly horizontal. If the line of sight is not horizontal when the instrument has been levelled, the level has a collimation error. As most levels will have some level of collimation error, a method is required to check if the error is within acceptable limits. This is known as a two-peg test. This needs to be conducted when using a new or different level for the first time and at regular intervals thereafter. Two peg test Stage 1 On fairly level ground, two points A and B are marked a distance of Lm apart.In soft ground, two pegs are used, on hard surfaces nails or paint may be used. The level is set up midway between the points at C and carefully levelled. A levelling staff is placed at A and B and staff readings S1 (at B) and S2 (at A) are taken. The two readings are: S1 = (S1‘ + x) and S2 = (S2‘ + x) S1‘ and S2‘ are the staff readings that would have been obtained if the line of collimation was horizontal, x is the error in each reading due to the collimation error, the effect of which is to tilt the line of sight by angle ?.Since AC = CB, the error x i n the readings S1 and S2 will be the same. The difference between readings S1 and S2 gives: S1 – S2 = (S1‘ + x) – (S2‘ + x) = S1‘ – S2‘ This gives the true difference in height between A and B. This demonstrates that if a collimation error is present in a level, the effect of this cancels out when height differences are computed provided readings are taken over equal sighting distances. Stage 2 The level is then moved so that it is L/10m from point B at D and readings S3 and S4 are taken.The difference between readings S3 and S4 gives the apparent difference in height between A and B. If the level is in perfect adjustment then: S1 – S2 = S3 – S4 However this is not always the case and that an error term (e) needs to be estimates e = (S1 – S2) – (S3 – S4) per Lm If the results of these tests show that the collimation error is less than 1mm per 20m (or some specified value). If the collimation error is gre ater than this specified value then the level has to be adjusted. This is normally done by the manufacturer or a trained technician.Example Readings obtained from a two peg test carried out on an automatic level with a staff placed on two pegs A and B 50m apart are: Staff reading at A = 1. 283m Staff reading at B = 0. 860m With the level position 5m from peg B (L/10): Staff reading at A = 1. 612m Staff reading at B =1. 219m Calculate the collimation error of the level per 50m of sighting distance Solution S1= 0. 860M S2 = 1. 283M S3 = 1. 219M S4 = 1. 612M e = (0. 860 – 1. 283) – (1. 219 – 1. 612) per 50M = (-0. 423 – (-0. 393)) = -0. 030M per 50M Exam Question 2007 (5 marks)

SegmentationTargetMarketpaper

Nordstrom core roof of shoppers, and those which the Nordstrom brand identify strongly with is the high-end luxury shopper. Nordstrom offers a high-quality lineup of designer apparel, shoes, accessories, and cosmetics for the discerning shopper (Explainer. 2013). The second group of shopper Nordstrom caters to is the Nordstrom Rack shopper or those with more modest budgets and spending habits (Explainer. 2013). Regardless of budget, both groups of shoppers desire the high-quality design of Nordstrom product offerings and the perception of that quality that the company creates in its brands Explainer. 013). The average shopper profile is married female, age 25-55. Nordstrom product lines cater to various sub-sets of shoppers. Top Shop and Brass Plum departments appeal to the single female shopper aged between 16-35 while The Rail and Men's departments cater to both single and married males in the age range of 16- 70. Nordstrom Point of View/Narrative and Studio 121 department appeal t o both married and single professional women aged 25-65 where as Savvy and TAB departments cater to the single or married females age 20- 40. Nordstrom designer departments;Individualist, Via C and Collectors, appeal to the high-end luxury shopper ranging in age of 25-65. Numerous other departments make up Nordstrom product offering and appeal to all shopper with its array of products including children's, shoes, cosmetics and home offerings. Cryptographic The Cryptographic make-up of Nordstrom shoppers are as diverse as its products lines. One common core true of all shopper is the desire for quality products and responsive, personalized customer service. Nordstrom shoppers lead active lifestyles; engage in physical and social activities.Nordstrom shoppers are often involved in various civic and social groups, have a wide array of personal and professional interests and family oriented. From the pediatric customer to the geriatric, Nordstrom shoppers have full schedules leaving lit tle time for wasted shopping. A shopping trip to Nordstrom for many is as much a social event as a functional one. Nordstrom recognizes this and has thus put into place its Cafe, a full-service restaurant offering a fine dining experience including alcoholic beverages.The design of the cafe allows shoppers to reconvene with family and friends while providing spite from the task of shopping. Nordstrom clients are fashion forward, discerning and demanding when it comes to quality products thus, the higher than average price point of Nordstrom product offerings is readily accepted. Geographic Nordstrom currently has 225 stores located in the IIS and recently, Canada. (Van Regimens. 2013). Nordstrom began its journey in Seattle, Washington and cornered the market in the western region.Nordstrom has since Opened locations in Minnesota Mall of America, Chicago and most recently, Manhattan in New York, and Canada, gaining more prominence on the East Coast. Strategic placement of Nordstrom stores capitalizes on cities with residents of greater spending power and affluence, maintaining continuity of the brand's identity of high-end luxury and service. Behavioral Characteristics Nordstrom shoppers desire a shopping experience that gives them a sense of importance, status and luxury.Due to their hectic and active lifestyles, the average Nordstrom shopper desires a hassle free quality shopping experience. Quality driven and willing to pay the extra few dollars to feel a sense of esteem and gratification, Nordstrom capitalizes on these behavioral heartsickness by encore raging salespeople to cultivate relationships with their clients thus providing shoppers a sense of trust and loyalty to the brand. Through the provision of personal shoppers, personal stylists and the ability to make an appointment for shopping needs, these behavioral needs are satisfied.The Nordstrom approach is ingenious as it also provides the ability to monitor and track the customers spending habits a nd trends allowing Nordstrom to base its products offerings and service with little margin of error or loss of profits. In addition to being fashion forward, the average Nordstrom shopper is tech savvy. In doing so, Nordstrom has cultivated a strong sense of community among shoppers thus creating a network effect that drives repeat sales (Explainer. 2013). According to Van Regimens (2013), â€Å"Nordstrom objective is to create the finest customer engagement both online and in the traditional store space.

Lieducation in preliterate societies Essay

Education, History of, theories, methods, and administration of schools and other agencies of information from ancient times to the present. Education developed from the human struggle for survival and enlightenment. It may be formal or informal. Informal education refers to the general social process by which human beings acquire the knowledge and skills needed to function in their culture. Formal education refers to the process by which teachers instruct students in courses of study within institutions. Before the invention of reading and writing, people lived in an environment in which they struggled to survive against natural forces, animals, and other humans. To survive, preliterate people developed skills that grew into cultural and educational patterns. For a particular group’s culture to continue into the future, people had to transmit it, or pass it on, from adults to children. The earliest educational processes involved sharing information about gathering food and providing shelter; making weapons and other tools; learning language; and acquiring the values, behavior, and religious rites or practices of a given culture. Through direct, informal education, parents, elders, and priests taught children the skills and roles they would need as adults. These lessons eventually formed the moral codes that governed behavior. Since they lived before the invention of writing, preliterate people used an oral tradition, or story telling, to pass on their culture and history from one generation to the next. By using language, people learned to create and use symbols, words, or signs to express their ideas. When these symbols grew into pictographs and letters, human beings created a written language and made the great cultural leap to literacy. IIIEDUCATION IN ANCIENT AFRICA AND ASIA In ancient Egypt, which flourished from about 3000 BC to about 500 BC, priests in temple schools taught not only religion but also the principles of writing, the sciences, mathematics, and architecture. Similarly in India, priests conducted most of the formal education. Beginning in about 1200 BC Indian priests taught the principles of the Veda, the sacred texts of Hinduism, as well as science, grammar, and philosophy. Formal education in China dates to about 2000 BC, though it thrived particularly during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, from 770 to 256 BC (see China: The Eastern Zhou). The curriculum stressed philosophy, poetry, and religion, in accord with the teachings of Confucius, Laozi (Lao-tzu), and other philosophers. IVEDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE Historians have looked to ancient Greece as one of the origins of Western formal education. The Iliad and the Odyssey, epic poems attributed to Homer and written sometime in the 8th century BC, created a cultural tradition that gave the Greeks a sense of group identity. In their dramatic account of Greek struggles, Homer’s epics served important educational purposes. The legendary Greek warriors depicted in Homer’s work, such as Agamemnon, Odysseus, and Achilles, were heroes who served as models for the young Greeks. Ancient Greece was divided into small and often competing city-states, or poleis, such as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Athens emphasized a humane and democratic society and education, but only about one-third of the people in Athens were free citizens. Slaves and residents from other countries or city-states made up the rest of the population. Only the sons of free citizens attended school. The Athenians believed a free man should have a liberal education in order to perform his civic duties and for his own personal development. The education of women depended upon the customs of the particular Greek city-state. In Athens, where women had no legal or economic rights, most women did not attend school. Some girls, however, were educated at home by tutors. Slaves and other noncitizens had either no formal education or very little. Sparta, the chief political enemy of Athens, was a dictatorship that used education for military training and drill. In contrast to Athens, Spartan girls received more schooling but it was almost exclusively athletic training to prepare them to be healthy mothers of future Spartan soldiers. In the 400s BC, the Sophists, a group of wandering teachers, began to teach in Athens. The Sophists claimed that they could teach any subject or skill to anyone who wished to learn it. They specialized in teaching grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects that eventually formed the core of the liberal arts. The Sophists were more interested in preparing their students to argue persuasively and win  arguments than in teaching principles of truth and morality. Unlike the Sophists, the Greek philosopher Socrates sought to discover and teach universal principles of truth, beauty, and goodness. Socrates, who died in 399 BC, claimed that true knowledge existed within everyone and needed to be brought to consciousness. His educational method, called the Socratic method, consisted of asking probing questions that forced his students to think deeply about the meaning of life, truth, and justice. In 387 BC Plato, who had studied under Socrates, established a school in Athens called the Academy. Plato believed in an unchanging world of perfect ideas or universal concepts. He asserted that since true knowledge is the same in every place at every time, education, like truth, should be unchanging. Plato described his educational ideal in the Republic, one of the most notable works of Western philosophy. Plato’s Republic describes a model society, or republic, ruled by highly intelligent philosopher-kings. Warriors make up the republic’s second class of people. The lowest class, the workers, provide food and the other products for all the people of the republic. In Plato’s ideal educational system, each class would receive a different kind of instruction to prepare for their various roles in society. In 335 BC Plato’s student, Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the Lyceum. Believing that human beings are essentially rational, Aristotle thought people could discover natural laws that governed the universe and then follow these laws in their lives. He also concluded that educated people who used reason to make decisions would lead a life of moderation in which they avoided dangerous extremes. In the 4th century BC Greek orator Isocrates developed a method of education designed to prepare students to be competent orators who could serve as government officials. Isocrates’s students studied rhetoric, politics, ethics, and history. They examined model orations and practiced public speaking. Isocrates’s methods of education directly influenced such Roman educational theorists as Cicero and Quintilian. VEDUCATION IN ANCIENT ROME While the Greeks were developing their civilization in the areas surrounding the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Romans were gaining control of the Italian peninsula and areas of the western Mediterranean. The Greeks’ education focused on the study of philosophy. The Romans, on the other hand, were preoccupied with war, conquest, politics, and civil administration. As in Greece, only a minority of Romans attended school. Schooling was for those who had the money to pay tuition and the time to attend classes. While girls from wealthy families occasionally learned to read and write at home, boys attended a primary school, called aludus. In secondary schools boys studied Latin and Greek grammar taught by Greek slaves, called pedagogues. After primary and secondary school, wealthy young men often attended schools of rhetoric or oratory that prepared them to be leaders in government and administration. Cicero, a 1st century BC Roman senator, combined Greek and Roman ideas on how to educate orators in his book De Oratore. Like Isocrates, Cicero believed orators should be educated in liberal arts subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and astronomy. He also asserted that they should study ethics, military science, natural science, geography, history, and law. Quintilian, an influential Roman educator who lived in the 1st century AD, wrote that education should be based on the stages of individual development from childhood to adulthood. Quintilian devised specific lessons for each stage. He also advised teachers to make their lessons suited to the student’s readiness and ability to learn new material. He urged teachers to motivate students by making learning interesting and attractive. VIANCIENT JEWISH EDUCATION Education among the Jewish people also had a profound influence on Western learning. The ancient Jews had great respect for the printed word and believed that God revealed truth to them in the Bible. Most information on ancient Jewish goals and methods of education comes from the Bible and the Talmud, a book of religious and civil law. Jewish religious leaders, known as rabbis, advised parents to teach their children religious beliefs, law, ethical practices, and vocational skills. Both boys and girls were introduced to religion by studying the Torah, the most sacred document of Judaism. Rabbis taught in schools within synagogues, places of worship and religious study. VIIMEDIEVAL EDUCATION During the Middle Ages, or the medieval period, which lasted roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, Western society and education were heavily shaped by Christianity, particularly the Roman Catholic Church. The Church operated parish, chapel, and monastery schools at the elementary level. Schools in monasteries and cathedrals offered secondary education. Much of the teaching in these schools was directed at learning Latin, the old Roman language used by the church in its ceremonies and teachings. The church provided some limited opportunities for the education of women in religious communities or convents. Convents had libraries and schools to help prepare nuns to follow the religious rules of their communities. Merchant and craft guilds also maintained some schools that provided basic education and training in specific crafts. Knights received training in military tactics and the code of chivalry. As in the Greek and Roman eras, only a minority of people went to school during the medieval period. Schools were attended primarily by persons planning to enter religious life such as priests, monks, or nuns. The vast majority of people were serfs who served as agricultural workers on the estates of feudal lords. The serfs, who did not attend school, were generally illiterate (see Serfdom). In the 10th and early 11th centuries, Arabic learning had a pronounced influence on Western education. From contact with Arab scholars in North Africa and Spain, Western educators learned new ways of thinking about mathematics, natural science, medicine, and philosophy. The Arabic number system was especially important, and became the foundation of Western arithmetic. Arab scholars also preserved and translated into Arabic the works of such influential Greek scholars as Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, and Ptolemy. Because many of these works had disappeared from Europe by the Middle Ages, they might have been lost forever if Arab scholars such as Avicenna and Averroes had not preserved them. In the 11th century medieval scholars developed Scholasticism, a philosophical and educational movement that used both human reason and revelations from the Bible. Upon encountering the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from Arab scholars, the Scholastics attempted to reconcile Christian theology with Greek philosophy. Scholasticism reached its high point in the Summa Theologiae of Saint Thomas Aquinas, a 13th century Dominican theologian who taught at the University of Paris. Aquinas reconciled the authority of religious faith, represented by the Scriptures, with Greek reason, represented by Aristotle. Aquinas described the teacher’s vocation as one that combines faith, love, and learning. The work of Aquinas and other Scholastics took place in the medieval institutions of higher education, the universities. The famous European universities of Paris, Salerno, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Padua grew out of the Scholastics-led intellectual revival of the 12th and 13th centuries. The name university comes from the Latin word universitas, or associations, in reference to the associations that students and teachers organized to discuss academic issues. Medieval universities offered degrees in the liberal arts and in professional studies such as theology, law, and medicine. VIIIEDUCATION DURING THE RENAISSANCE The Renaissance, or rebirth of learning, began in Europe in the 14th century and reached its height in the 15th century. Scholars became more interested in the humanist features—that is, the secular or worldly rather than the religious aspects—of the Greek and Latin classics. Humanist educators found their models of literary style in the classics. The Renaissance was a particularly powerful force in Italy, most notably in art, literature, and architecture. In literature, the works of such Italian writers as Dante Aleghieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio became especially important. Humanist educators designed teaching methods to prepare well-rounded, liberally educated persons. Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus was particularly influential. Erasmus believed that understanding and conversing about the meaning of literature was more important than memorizing it, as had been required at many of the medieval religious schools. He advised teachers to study such fields as archaeology, astronomy, mythology, history, and Scripture. The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century made books more widely available and increased literacy rates (see Printing). But school attendance did not increase greatly during the Renaissance. Elementary schools educated middle-class children while lower-class children received little, if any, formal schooling. Children of the nobility and upper classes attended humanist secondary schools. Educational opportunities for women improved slightly during the Renaissance, especially for the upper classes. Some girls from wealthy families attended schools of the royal court or received private lessons at home. The curriculum studied by young women was still based on the belief that only certain subjects, such as art, music, needlework, dancing, and poetry, were suited for females. For working-class girls, especially rural peasants, education was still limited to training in household duties such as cooking and sewing. IXEDUCATION DURING THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION The religious Reformation of the 16th century marked a decline in the authority of the Catholic Church and contributed to the emergence of the middle classes in Europe. Protestant religious reformers, such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, and Huldreich Zwingli, rejected the authority of the Catholic pope and created reformed Christian, or Protestant, churches. In their ardent determination to instruct followers to read the Bible in their native language, reformers extended literacy to the masses. They established vernacular primary schools that offered a basic curriculum of reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion for children in their own language. Vernacular schools in England, for example, used English to teach their pupils. As they argued with each other and with the Roman Catholics on religious matters, Protestant educators wrote catechisms—primary books that summarized their religious doctrine—in a question and answer format. While the vernacular schools educated both boys and girls at the primary level, upper-class boys attended preparatory and secondary schools that continued to emphasize Latin and Greek. The gymnasium in Germany, the Latin grammar school in England, and the lycee in France were preparatory schools that taught young men the classical languages of Latin and Greek required to enter universities. Martin Luther believed the state, family, and school, along with the church, were leaders of the Reformation. Since the family shaped children’s character, Luther encouraged parents to teach their children reading and religion. Each family should pray together, read the Bible, study the catechism, and practice a useful trade. Luther believed that government should assist schools in educating literate, productive, and religious citizens. One of Luther’s colleagues, German religious reformer Melanchthon, wrote the school code for the German region of Wurttemberg, which became a model for other regions of Germany and influenced education throughout Europe. According to this code, the government was responsible for supervising schools and licensing teachers. The Protestant reformers retained the dual-class school system that had developed in the Renaissance. Vernacular schools provided primary instruction for the lower classes, and the various classical humanist and Latin grammar schools prepared upper-class males for higher education. XEDUCATIONAL THEORY IN THE 17TH CENTURY Educators of the 17th century developed new ways of thinking about education. Czech education reformer Jan Komensky, known as Comenius, was particularly influential. A bishop of the Moravian Church, Comenius escaped religious persecution by taking refuge in Poland, Hungary, Sweden, and The Netherlands. He created a new educational philosophy called Pansophism, or universal knowledge, designed to bring about worldwide understanding and peace. Comenius advised teachers to use children’s senses rather than memorization in instruction. To make learning interesting for children, he wrote The Gate of Tongues Unlocked (1631), a book for teaching Latin in the student’s own language. He also wrote Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658; The Visible World in Pictures, 1659) consisting of illustrations that labeled objects in both their Latin and vernacular names. It was one of the first illustrated books written especially for children. The work of English philosopher John Locke influenced education in Britain and North America. Locke examined how people acquire ideas in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). He asserted that at birth the human mind is a blank slate, or tabula rasa, and empty of ideas. We acquire knowledge, he argued, from the information about the objects in the world that our senses bring to us. We begin with simple ideas and then combine them into more complex ones. Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge most easily when they first consider simple ideas and then gradually combine them into more complex ones. In Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1697), Locke recommended practical learning to prepare people to manage their social, economic, and political affairs efficiently. He believed that a sound education began in early childhood and insisted that the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic be gradual and cumulative. Locke’s curriculum included conversational learning of foreign languages, especially French, mathematics, history, physical education, and games. XIEDUCATION DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT The Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century produced important changes in education and educational theory. During the Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, educators believed people could improve their lives and society by using their reason, their powers of critical thinking. The Enlightenment’s ideas had a significant impact on the American Revolution (1775-1783) and early educational policy in the United States. In particular, American philosopher and scientist Benjamin Franklin emphasized the value of utilitarian and scientific education in American schools. Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, stressed the importance of civic education to the citizens of a democratic nation. The Enlightenment principles that considered education as an instrument of social reform and improvement remain fundamental characteristics of American education policy. XIIEDUCATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY The foundations of modern education were established in the 19th century. Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, inspired by the work of French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, developed an educational method based on the natural world and the senses. Pestalozzi established schools in Switzerland and Germany to educate children and train teachers. He affirmed that schools should resemble secure and loving homes. Like Locke and Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that thought began with sensation and that teaching should use the senses. Holding that children should study the objects in their natural environment, Pestalozzi developed a so-called â€Å"object lesson† that involved exercises in learning form, number, and language. Pupils determined and traced an object’s form, counted objects, and named them. Students progressed from these lessons to exercises in drawing, writing, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading. Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching: (1) begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts; (2) begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is distant and remote; (3) begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones; and (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly. American educator Henry Barnard, the first U. S. Commissioner of Education, introduced Pestalozzi’s ideas to the United States in the late 19th century. Barnard also worked for the establishment of free public high schools for students of all classes of American society. German philosopher Johann Herbart emphasized moral education and designed a highly structured teaching technique. Maintaining that education’s primary goal is moral development, Herbart claimed good character rested on knowledge while misconduct resulted from an inadequate education. Knowledge, he said, should create an â€Å"apperceptive mass†Ã¢â‚¬â€a network of ideas—in a person’s mind to which new ideas can be added. He wanted to include history, geography, and literature in the school curriculum as well as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Based on his work, Herbart’s followers designed a five-step teaching method: (1) prepare the pupils to be ready for the new lesson, (2) present the new lesson, (3) associate the new lesson with ideas studied earlier, (4) use examples to illustrate the lesson’s major points, and (5) test pupils to ensure they had learned the new lesson. AKindergarten German educator Friedrich Froebel created the earliest kindergarten, a form of preschool education that literally means â€Å"child’s garden† in German. Froebel, who had an unhappy childhood, urged teachers to think back to their own childhoods to find insights they could use in their teaching. Froebel studied at Pestalozzi’s institute in Yverdon, Switzerland, from 1808 to 1810. While agreeing with Pestalozzi’s emphasis on the natural world, a kindly school atmosphere, and the object lesson, Froebel felt that Pestalozzi’s method was not philosophical enough. Froebel believed that every child’s inner self contained a spiritual essence—a spark of divine energy—that enabled a child to learn independently. In 1837 Froebel opened a kindergarten in Blankenburg with a curriculum that featured songs, stories, games, gifts, and occupations. The songs and stories stimulated the imaginations of children and introduced them to folk heroes and cultural values. Games developed children’s social and physical skills. By playing with each other, children learned to participate in a group. Froebel’s gifts, including such objects as spheres, cubes, and cylinders, were designed to enable the child to understand the concept that the object represented. Occupations consisted of materials children could use in building activities. For example, clay, sand, cardboard, and sticks could be used to build castles, cities, and mountains. Immigrants from Germany brought the kindergarten concept to the United States, where it became part of the American school system. Margarethe Meyer Schurz opened a German-language kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1855. Elizabeth Peabody established an English-language kindergarten and a training school for kindergarten teachers in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1860. William Torrey Harris, superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Missouri, and later a U. S. commissioner of education, made the kindergarten part of the American public school system. BSocial Darwinism British sociologist Herbert Spencer strongly influenced education in the mid-19th century with social theories based on the theory of evolution developed by British naturalist Charles Darwin. Spencer revised Darwin’s biological theory into social Darwinism, a body of ideas that applied the theory of evolution to society, politics, the economy, and education. Spencer maintained that in modern industrialized societies, as in earlier simpler societies, the â€Å"fittest† individuals of each generation survived because they were intelligent and adaptable. Competition caused the brightest and strongest individuals to climb to the top of the society. Urging unlimited competition, Spencer wanted government to restrict its activities to the bare minimum. He opposed public schools, claiming that they would create a monopoly for mediocrity by catering to students of low ability. He wanted private schools to compete against each other in trying to attract the brightest students and most capable teachers. Spencer’s social Darwinism became very popular in the last half of the 19th century when industrialization was changing American and Western European societies. Spencer believed that people in industrialized society needed scientific rather than classical education. Emphasizing education in practical skills, he advocated a curriculum featuring lessons in five basic human activities: (1) those needed for self-preservation such as health, diet, and exercise; (2) those needed to perform one’s occupation so that a person can earn a living, including the basic skills of reading, writing, computation, and knowledge of the sciences; (3) those needed for parenting, to raise children properly; (4) those needed to participate in society and politics; and (5) those needed for leisure and recreation. Spencer’s ideas on education were eagerly accepted in the United States. In 1918 the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, a report issued by the National Education Association, used Spencer’s list of activities in its recommendations for American education. XIIINATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION In the 19th century, governments in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, and other European countries organized national systems of public education. The United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, and other countries in North and South America also established national education systems based largely on European models. AIn the United Kingdom. The Church of England and other churches often operated primary schools in the United Kingdom, where students paid a small fee to study the Bible, catechism, reading, writing, and arithmetic. In 1833 the British Parliament passed a law that gave some government funds to these schools. In 1862 the United Kingdom established a school grant system, called payment by results, in which schools received funds based on their students’ performance on reading, writing, and arithmetic tests. The Education Act of 1870, called the Forster Act, authorized local government boards to establish public board schools. The United Kingdom then had two schools systems: board schools operated by the government and voluntary schools conducted by the churches and other private organizations. In 1878 the United Kingdom passed laws that limited child labor in factories and made it possible for more children to attend school. To make schooling available to working-class children, many schools with limited public and private funds used monitorial methods of instruction. Monitorial education, developed by British educators Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell, used student monitors to conduct lessons. It offered the fledgling public education system the advantage of allowing schools to hire fewer teachers to instruct the large number of new students. Schools featuring monitorial education used older boys, called monitors, who were more advanced in their studies, to teach younger children. Monitorial education concentrated on basic skills—reading, writing, and arithmetic—that were broken down into small parts or units. After a monitor had learned a unit—such as spelling words of two or three letters that began with the letter A—he would, under the master teacher’s supervision, teach this unit to a group of students. By the end of the 19th century, the monitorial system was abandoned in British schools because it provided a very limited education. BIn Russia Russian tsar Alexander II initiated education reforms leading to the Education Statute of 1864. This law created zemstvos, local government units, which operated primary schools. In addition to zemstvo schools, the Russian Orthodox Church conducted parish schools. While the number of children attending school slowly increased, most of Russia’s population remained illiterate. Peasants often refused to send their children to school so that they could work on the farms. More boys attended school than girls since many peasant parents considered female education unnecessary. Fearing that too much education would make people discontented with their lives, the tsar’s government provided only limited schooling to instill political loyalty and religious piety. CIn the United States Before the 19th century elementary and secondary education in the United States was organized on a local or regional level. Nearly all schools operated on private funds exclusively. However, beginning in the 1830s and 1840s, American educators such as Henry Barnard and Horace Mann argued for the creation of a school system operated by individual states that would provide an equal education for all American children. In 1852 Massachusetts passed the first laws calling for free public education, and by 1918 all U. S. states had passed compulsory school attendance laws. See Public Education in the United States. XIVEDUCATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY At the beginning of the 20th century, the writings of Swedish feminist and educator Ellen Key influenced education around the world. Key’s book Barnets arhundrade (1900; The Century of the Child,1909) was translated into many languages and inspired so-called progressive educators in various countries. Progressive education was a system of teaching that emphasized the needs and potentials of the child, rather than the needs of society or the principles of religion. Among the influential progressive educators were Hermann Lietz and Georg Michael Kerschensteiner of Germany, Bertrand Russell of England, and Maria Montessori of Italy. AMontessori Montessori’s methods of early childhood education have become internationally popular. Trained in medicine, Montessori worked with developmentally disabled children early in her career. The results of her work were so effective that she believed her teaching methods could be used to educate all children. In 1907 Montessori established a children’s school, the Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House), for poor children from the San Lorenzo district of Rome. Here she developed a specially prepared environment that featured materials and activities based on her observations of children. She found that children enjoy mastering specific skills, prefer work to play, and can sustain concentration. She also believed that children have a power to learn independently if provided a properly stimulating environment. Montessori’s curriculum emphasized three major classes of activity: (1) practical, (2) sensory, and (3) formal skills and studies. It introduced children to such practical activities as setting the table, serving a meal, washing dishes, tying and buttoning clothing, and practicing basic social manners. Repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination. Formal skills and subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Montessori designed special teaching materials to develop these skills, including laces, buttons, weights, and materials identifiable by their sound or smell. Instructors provided the materials for the children and demonstrated the lessons but allowed each child to independently learn the particular skill or behavior. In 1913 Montessori lectured in the United States on her educational method.